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Published online before print February 28, 2003, 10.1148/radiol.2271020288
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(Radiology 2003;227:149-154.)
© RSNA, 2003

Musculoskeletal Imaging

Dynamic US of the Anterior Band of the Ulnar Collateral Ligament of the Elbow in Asymptomatic Major League Baseball Pitchers1

Levon N. Nazarian, MD, John M. McShane, MD, Michael G. Ciccotti, MD, Patrick L. O’Kane, MD and Marc I. Harwood, MD

1 From the Department of Radiology, Division of Ultrasound (L.N.N., P.L.O.), the Department of Family Medicine, Division of Sports Medicine (J.M.M., M.I.H.), and the Department of Orthopedic Surgery (M.G.C.), Thomas Jefferson University Hospital, 132 S 10th St, 7th Fl Main Bldg, Philadelphia, PA 19107-5244. From the 2001 RSNA scientific assembly. Received March 22, 2002; revision requested April 25; revision received June 8; accepted August 8. Address correspondence to L.N.N. (e-mail: levon.nazarian@mail.tju.edu).


   ABSTRACT
TOP
 ABSTRACT
INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
PURPOSE: To determine whether dynamic ultrasonography (US) can reveal abnormalities of the anterior band of the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) of the elbow in asymptomatic major league professional baseball players.

MATERIALS AND METHODS: US was performed in 26 asymptomatic major league professional baseball pitchers before spring training. Images were obtained in both pitching and nonpitching arms with a multifrequency 13-MHz linear-array transducer. The thickness of the anterior band of the UCL and the width of the joint it spans (the ulnohumeral joint) were measured with the elbow at 30° of flexion, both at rest and with valgus stress. The thickness of the anterior band of the UCL and the width of the joint space were compared for pitching and nonpitching arms by using the Student t test. The prevalence of hypoechoic areas and calcifications within the anterior band of the UCL in pitching and nonpitching arms was compared by using the McNemar test. The average time of the US examinations was recorded.

RESULTS: At rest, the mean thickness (± 1 SD) of the anterior band of the UCL was 6.3 mm ± 1.1 in pitching arms and 5.3 mm ± 1.0 in nonpitching arms. This difference was statistically significant (P < .01). With stress, the anterior band thickness was 6.3 mm ± 1.4 in the pitching arms and 4.8 mm ± 0.9 in the nonpitching arms (P < .001). The joint space width at rest was 2.8 mm ± 1.0 in the pitching arms and 2.5 mm ± 0.7 in the nonpitching arms (not statistically significant). When stress was applied, however, the joint space width was significantly greater in the pitching arms than in the nonpitching arms (4.2 mm ± 1.5 vs 3 mm ± 1.0, respectively; P < .01). Hypoechoic foci within the anterior band of the UCL were seen in 18 of 26 (69%) pitching arms and three of 26 (12%) nonpitching arms (P < .001). Calcifications were detected in nine of 26 (35%) pitching arms but in none of the nonpitching arms (P < .001). The average time for bilateral US was 10.4 minutes.

CONCLUSION: Dynamic US provides a rapid means for evaluating the anterior band of the UCL in professional baseball pitchers. In pitching arms, this band is thicker, is more likely to have hypoechoic foci and/or calcifications, and demonstrates more laxity with valgus stress.

© RSNA, 2003

Index terms: Athletes and athletics • Athletic injuries, 422.482 • Elbow, injuries, 422.482 • Elbow, US, 422.1298 • Ligaments, injuries, 422.482


   INTRODUCTION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
For overhead-throwing athletes such as baseball pitchers, the medial elbow experiences an abrupt, tremendous increase in valgus stress during the late cocking and early acceleration phases of the pitching motion (1–5). Medial elbow symptoms comprise up to 97% of elbow complaints in pitchers (5). In pitching elbows, the most commonly injured soft-tissue structure is the ulnar collateral ligament (UCL), which is the major stabilizer of the elbow joint against valgus stress (6,7). The UCL is divided into anterior, posterior, and transverse bands, which are also known as bundles (8,9). The anterior band provides the largest degree of joint stabilization and, therefore, is of the greatest importance (7,10).

Findings at clinical examination of the UCL may be equivocal because clinically significant injuries to the UCL can be subtle and because other abnormalities such as medial epicondylitis, flexor-pronator injuries and ruptures, posteromedial olecranon osteophytes, ulnar stress fractures, and ulnar neuropathy can simulate UCL abnormalities (5,11). There is, therefore, a role for imaging in the assessment of individuals with medial elbow pain (11). Imaging of the UCL can be direct (visualizing the ligament itself) or indirect (demonstrating the joint instability that UCL injury causes).

Although acute ruptures are well seen with conventional magnetic resonance (MR) imaging (12), the most accurate modality for partial or more chronic injuries is reported to be MR arthrography (10,13). There are limits to MR arthrography, however, including expense, time, and invasiveness; in our experience, major league pitchers are particularly protective of their pitching arms and do not like having needles inserted for arthrography. Furthermore, MR is a static examination that cannot demonstrate the joint instability that is so important in the pathophysiology of UCL injury. In the past, stress radiography has been used to demonstrate this instability; however, the ligament cannot be imaged directly unless calcifications are present.

Ultrasonography (US) is unique in that it can both directly depict the often-injured anterior band of the UCL and help assess laxity of the ulnohumeral joint. Advantages of US compared to MR arthrography include lower cost, greater availability, better spatial resolution, noninvasiveness, and ability to perform dynamic studies. Although there is already a vast amount of literature about musculoskeletal US, its use in the UCL has been limited to only a few reports (14,15).

Because most symptomatic tears are the result of chronic, repetitive trauma (1), it is likely that there is a stage at which the findings are not yet symptomatic but are detectable with US. Furthermore, because UCL abnormalities in baseball pitchers are almost always limited to the pitching arm, the nondominant arm of each pitcher can be used as an internal control for both normal UCL appearance and ulnohumeral joint stability. Thus, the purpose of this study was to test the hypothesis that dynamic US will reveal abnormalities of the anterior band of the UCL in asymptomatic major league professional baseball pitchers.


   MATERIALS AND METHODS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
Preliminary Cadaveric Examination
As a preliminary investigation, the anterior band of the UCL was identified in a male cadaver elbow fixed in formalin. The cadaver elbow was obtained and studied according to our institutional guidelines. The cadaver elbow was scanned at room temperature by a sonologist (L.N.N.) with 8 years of experience in musculoskeletal US. Scans were obtained by using a multifrequency 13-MHz linear-array transducer (Elegra; Siemens, Issaquah, Wash) and standard acoustic coupling gel. The position of the anterior band of the UCL was identified by the orthopedic surgeon (M.G.C.) with use of external anatomic landmarks. US of this area revealed a structure that was hyperechoic relative to the flexor and/or pronator muscle mass and that spanned the ulnohumeral joint (Fig 1). The surgeon performed a cutdown and inserted a surgical probe in the anterior band of the UCL. Then, this area was rescanned to confirm the identity of the anterior band.



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  		Figure 1. US scan of the long axis of the anterior band of the UCL (arrows) in a male cadaveric elbow. Bone acoustic landmarks include the medial epicondyle of the humerus (E), the trochlea of the humerus (T), and the coronoid process of the ulna (C). The common flexor tendon (F) is superficial to the anterior band of the UCL and can be seen inserting onto the medial epicondyle. The ulnohumeral joint is indicated by cursors.

 
Subjects
Thereafter, during a 2-day period during baseball spring training camp in February 2001, the same sonologist performed US in 52 elbows in 26 major league professional male baseball pitchers with a mean age of 27.1 years (age range, 21–39 years). All pitchers were on the major league roster for the same professional team and were examined with US as part of their preseason physical examination. The subjects had been major league pitchers for a mean of 7.2 years (range, 3–18 years). Eighteen pitchers were right-handed and eight were left-handed. All pitchers were asymptomatic and had no history of elbow surgery. The scans were obtained at the request of the team surgeon so that a baseline scan would be available for comparison should any of the players have an elbow injury during the season. Institutional review board approval was obtained for the retrospective analysis of the data. Our institutional review board did not require informed consent.

Imaging
The subjects were imaged with the same US equipment used for the cadaver study. Images of the anterior band of the UCL were obtained by the same experienced sonologist with the arm at 30° of flexion, as measured with a goniometer. This degree of flexion was chosen to unlock the olecranon from its fossa, thus making the UCL the major stabilizer of the elbow to valgus stress. Two measurements were obtained at rest from each elbow, as depicted on the cadaver image in Figure 1: the thickness of the anterior band of the UCL in its midportion and the width of the ulnohumeral joint space at the level of the anterior band.

The same two measurements were repeated during application of valgus stress by the head trainer, who has been with the baseball team for more than 15 years; the trainer attempted to apply a maximal valgus force to each elbow studied. Measurements were made by the sonologist on the screen of the US unit by using electronic calipers. Because of strict time constraints imposed by the baseball team, each measurement was made only once.

The real-time US scans were interpreted by the sonologist while he was performing the examination in consensus with another sonologist (P.L.O.), who was present for each scan. Images were evaluated for echotextural abnormalities (ie, hypoechoic foci and calcifications) in the anterior band of the UCL. Calcifications were defined as discrete hyperechoic foci that demonstrated acoustic shadowing. Both gray-scale US findings and measurement data were immediately recorded on data sheets. Data were later transferred to a computer spreadsheet (Excel; Microsoft, Redmond, Wash) to facilitate analysis. All examinations were videotaped directly from the US monitor, and pertinent still-frame images were recorded on optical disks for archiving. The average time necessary for each examination was determined by dividing the total scanning time by the number of pitchers scanned.

Statistical Analysis
The Student t test was used to compare the thickness of the anterior band of the UCL and the width of the ulnohumeral joint space between pitching and nonpitching elbows and to correlate gray-scale US abnormalities with years spent in professional baseball. Prevalences of hypoechoic foci and calcifications between pitching and nonpitching arms were also compared by using the McNemar test for symmetry. Results were considered statistically significant if the P value was less than .05.


   RESULTS
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 
At rest, the mean thickness (± 1 SD) of the anterior band of the UCL was 6.3 mm ± 1.1 (range, 4.6–8.9 mm) in pitching arms and 5.3 mm ± 1.0 (range, 3.8–7.6 mm) in nonpitching arms (Fig 2). This difference was statistically significant (P < .01). With stress, the mean anterior band thickness was 6.3 mm ± 1.4 (range, 3.8–9.8 mm) in pitching arms and 4.8 mm ± 0.9 (range, 2.9–6.5 mm) in nonpitching arms (P < .001).



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  		Figure 2a. Longitudinal US scans of the anterior band of the UCL in an asymptomatic 21-year-old pitcher. Images of the pitching elbow (a) at rest and (b) with stress show a thickened anterior band (arrowheads) that is 8.9 mm and that contains a large hypoechoic area (H). Although the ulnohumeral joint is not well depicted on these static images, it measured 2.9 mm at rest and 7.5 mm with stress at real-time imaging. (c, d) Corresponding views of the nonpitching arm. The anterior band of this ligament (arrowheads) is only 4.4 mm thick and has a normal echotexture. The ulnohumeral joint (arrows) did not widen appreciably with stress.

 


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  		Figure 2b. Longitudinal US scans of the anterior band of the UCL in an asymptomatic 21-year-old pitcher. Images of the pitching elbow (a) at rest and (b) with stress show a thickened anterior band (arrowheads) that is 8.9 mm and that contains a large hypoechoic area (H). Although the ulnohumeral joint is not well depicted on these static images, it measured 2.9 mm at rest and 7.5 mm with stress at real-time imaging. (c, d) Corresponding views of the nonpitching arm. The anterior band of this ligament (arrowheads) is only 4.4 mm thick and has a normal echotexture. The ulnohumeral joint (arrows) did not widen appreciably with stress.

 


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  		Figure 2c. Longitudinal US scans of the anterior band of the UCL in an asymptomatic 21-year-old pitcher. Images of the pitching elbow (a) at rest and (b) with stress show a thickened anterior band (arrowheads) that is 8.9 mm and that contains a large hypoechoic area (H). Although the ulnohumeral joint is not well depicted on these static images, it measured 2.9 mm at rest and 7.5 mm with stress at real-time imaging. (c, d) Corresponding views of the nonpitching arm. The anterior band of this ligament (arrowheads) is only 4.4 mm thick and has a normal echotexture. The ulnohumeral joint (arrows) did not widen appreciably with stress.

 


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  		Figure 2d. Longitudinal US scans of the anterior band of the UCL in an asymptomatic 21-year-old pitcher. Images of the pitching elbow (a) at rest and (b) with stress show a thickened anterior band (arrowheads) that is 8.9 mm and that contains a large hypoechoic area (H). Although the ulnohumeral joint is not well depicted on these static images, it measured 2.9 mm at rest and 7.5 mm with stress at real-time imaging. (c, d) Corresponding views of the nonpitching arm. The anterior band of this ligament (arrowheads) is only 4.4 mm thick and has a normal echotexture. The ulnohumeral joint (arrows) did not widen appreciably with stress.

 
At rest, the width of the ulnohumeral joint space was 2.8 mm ± 1.0 (range, 1.3–5.3 mm) in pitching arms and 2.5 mm ± 0.7 (range, 1.2–3.9 mm) in nonpitching arms (the difference was not statistically significant, P > .2). When stress was applied, however, the width of the joint space was significantly greater in pitching arms (mean, 4.2 mm ± 1.5; range, 1.6–8.2 mm) than in nonpitching arms (mean, 3.0 mm ± 1.0; range, 1.4–5.5 mm) (P < .01). Therefore, the average widening of the ulnohumeral joint, defined as the width of the ulnohumeral joint space with stress minus that at rest, was 1.4 mm in pitching arms and 0.5 mm in nonpitching arms (Figs 2–4).



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  		Figure 3a. Longitudinal US scans of the anterior band of the UCL (arrowheads) obtained (a) at rest and (b) with valgus stress in the pitching elbow of an asymptomatic 31-year-old pitcher. The anterior band is mildly heterogeneous in its gray-scale appearance. The width of the ulnohumeral joint (arrows) was 3.3 mm at rest and 5.6 mm with stress. In the nonpitching elbow (not shown), the corresponding measurements at rest and stress were 2.6 and 2.7 mm, respectively.

 


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  		Figure 3b. Longitudinal US scans of the anterior band of the UCL (arrowheads) obtained (a) at rest and (b) with valgus stress in the pitching elbow of an asymptomatic 31-year-old pitcher. The anterior band is mildly heterogeneous in its gray-scale appearance. The width of the ulnohumeral joint (arrows) was 3.3 mm at rest and 5.6 mm with stress. In the nonpitching elbow (not shown), the corresponding measurements at rest and stress were 2.6 and 2.7 mm, respectively.

 


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  		Figure 4a. Longitudinal US scans of the anterior band of the UCL obtained (a) at rest and (b) with valgus stress in the pitching elbow of an asymptomatic 26-year-old pitcher. The anterior band is hypoechoic (*), particularly near its humeral insertion. The ulnohumeral joint (arrows) was 2.8 mm at rest and 3.9 mm with stress.

 


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  		Figure 4b. Longitudinal US scans of the anterior band of the UCL obtained (a) at rest and (b) with valgus stress in the pitching elbow of an asymptomatic 26-year-old pitcher. The anterior band is hypoechoic (*), particularly near its humeral insertion. The ulnohumeral joint (arrows) was 2.8 mm at rest and 3.9 mm with stress.

 
Hypoechoic foci in the anterior band of the UCL (Figs 2, 4) were detected in 18 (69%) of the 26 pitching arms and three of the 26 (12%) nonpitching arms (P < .001). Calcifications in the anterior band (Fig 5) were seen in nine (35%) of the 26 pitching arms and none of the nonpitching arms (P < .001).



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  		Figure 5. Longitudinal US scan of the anterior band of the UCL in an asymptomatic 30-year-old pitcher. Shadowing calcification (arrow) is seen within the substance of the anterior band (arrowheads).

 
In total, hypoechoic foci or calcifications were detected in the anterior band of the UCL of 20 (77%) of the 26 pitching arms. The unpaired two-tailed t test revealed that the 20 anterior bands with these gray-scale abnormalities were thicker (mean, 6.6 vs 5.5 mm, P < .05) and the joint space was wider (mean, 1.3 vs 0.1 mm, P < .05) than those in the six anterior bands that did not show hypoechoic foci or calcifications. Furthermore, the subjects with these abnormal gray-scale appearances had been professional baseball pitchers for a significantly longer time (8 years ± 3.3 vs 4.7 years ± 3.4; P < .05).

The 26 pitchers were scanned in rapid succession during a total of 270 minutes (150 minutes the first day and 120 minutes the next day). Therefore, the average time for bilateral US was 10.4 minutes. This included the time to bring each pitcher into the room and set up the US machine.


   DISCUSSION
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
REFERENCES
 
The UCL arises from the medial epicondyle of the humerus, and the anterior band inserts on the medial aspect of the coronoid process of the ulna (7). The medial epicondyle and the coronoid process provide the bony acoustic landmarks that enable US to depict the anterior band of the UCL. The mean (± SD) thickness of the anterior band in nonpitching arms was 5.3 mm ± 1. This finding is consistent with those from the cadaver study by Morrey and An (9), who found the anterior band to measure 4.7 mm ± 1.2, and the study by Timmerman and Andrews (16), who found a mean thickness of 6 mm. The anterior band of the UCL, in turn, is divided into superficial and deep layers that are separated by an area containing loose connective tissue (16,17).

Injuries to the anterior band of the UCL can be either acute or chronic. Acute tears produce pain in the medial elbow, and the pitcher may hear or feel a "pop" accompanied by swelling and laxity of the ulnohumeral joint at physical examination (1,18,19). After an acute UCL injury, the pitcher is unable to throw the ball at the high level demanded of professional athletes and must either end his career or undergo surgical reconstruction of the ligament (20). Chronic injuries to the UCL are more common, are due to repetitive microtrauma, and have a more insidious onset (1,21). The ligament may undergo degeneration, calcification, and tearing, which will eventually lead to instability (1,10,17,22). Once the pitcher’s performance becomes adversely affected, treatment is mandated: Conservative treatment is usually attempted initially, but if this treatment cannot arrest the progression to instability, surgery is indicated (4,17).

The results of our study show that these chronic changes can be detected at gray-scale US. Ligamentous thickening, hypoechoic foci, and calcifications were all seen with greater frequency in pitching arms. Gray-scale abnormalities were significantly more common in pitchers who have been professional baseball players for a longer period of time. Popovic et al (14) also found UCL thickening at US of professional team handball players. The mean UCL thickness in the study by Popovic et al (14) was 1.68 mm ± 0.35 in the dominant arm and 1.21 mm ± 0.26 in the nondominant arm. The discrepancy between absolute UCL measurements obtained in our study and that of Popovic et al can be explained by the different measurement techniques: Their illustrations show that they measured only the superficial component of the anterior band, thus underestimating the total UCL thickness (14).

Calcification or ossification of the UCL has been described at surgery (1,17,18,20) and at radiography and MR imaging (23). Calcifications are a well-known accompaniment of ligamentous injury (1). Calcifications seen at MR imaging are associated with partial or complete UCL tears (23). US, with its superior spatial resolution, should be more sensitive than MR imaging or radiography in the detection of calcifications.

Although it is important to detect anatomic alterations to the UCL, the anatomic appearance of the ligament is only part of the evaluation. If a ligament is degenerated but does not produce ulnohumeral instability, surgical reconstruction is not indicated. Conversely, a lax ligament may require reconstruction even if it is not torn or grossly degenerated. The integrity of the UCL can be assessed clinically by placing valgus stress on the elbow. The stress must be applied with more than 20° flexion; up until this point, the bone structures are the major contributors to joint stability (11,17). Because side-to-side differences in ulnohumeral joint widening can be very subtle even in complete ruptures, the findings at clinical examination may be equivocal (4). Joint instability in throwing athletes has previously been evaluated with stress radiography (14,18,24).

These studies showed significantly greater stress-induced medial joint space widening between dominant and nondominant arms in uninjured professional baseball players (24) and uninjured team handball players (14), which is similar to our findings. An additional study (18) showed increased joint space widening in baseball players and javelin throwers with UCL tears; these investigators concluded that joint widening of more than 0.5 mm at stress radiography was diagnostic of large and complete tears in patients with clinical suspicion of UCL injury. These studies showed that stress radiography is an accurate means for evaluating laxity of the medial elbow joint. The advantages of US over stress radiography include portability, lack of ionizing radiation, and ability to image the anterior band of the UCL directly to look for tears, calcification, or degeneration. Furthermore, US can depict other abnormalities that can mimic UCL abnormalities, including medial epicondylitis, flexor and/or pronator muscle injuries, and ulnar neuropathy.

We showed that, at rest, the sonographically determined width of the ulnohumeral joint in pitching and nonpitching arms is not significantly different. With stress, however, there is a significant difference, with a mean of 1.4 mm widening in the pitching arms compared to 0.5 mm in the nonpitching arms. Given how common elbow problems are in the throwing athlete, it is reasonable to conjecture that these pitchers’ elbows, although asymptomatic when examined, are on the continuum of chronic repetitive UCL injury.

Similar findings were reported by Sasaki et al (25) in a recent investigation of college baseball players. Sasaki et al showed that the medial joint space was significantly wider on the throwing side than on the contralateral side and showed more laxity with valgus stress. Their methods were similar to those used in our study, and the differences were relatively minor: they used a 10-MHz transducer instead of a 13-MHz transducer, placed the elbow in 90° of flexion instead of 30° of flexion, and used gravity stress instead of manual stress. Note that they did not study the gray-scale US characteristics of the ligament itself.

There are a few limitations to our study, the major one being the lack of surgical correlation. Because the pitchers were asymptomatic, there was no reason to intervene surgically. In addition, no follow-up studies have been performed at this time because none of the pitchers developed elbow problems during the 2001 baseball season. In addition, we did not have an independent control group. Unlike injuries to other joints such as shoulders, knees, and ankles, the elbows of baseball pitchers are almost always unilaterally involved such that the nonpitching arm can serve as a control to differentiate physiologic and pathologic laxity (5,26).

Bias may have been introduced in our study because it was difficult to blind the examiner as to which was the pitching arm. We tried to minimize this bias by standardizing our technique as much as possible. Because of strict time constraints, we were unable to perform tests of intra- or interobserver reliability. Finally, the amount of valgus stress applied to each elbow could have varied slightly. Commercial devices exist that can standardize this stress, but at the time of the study we did not have such a device available to us. We addressed this limitation by having the same experienced trainer apply valgus stress to all 52 elbows.

In summary, dynamic US of the anterior band of the UCL of the elbow is rapidly performed and gives information not only about structural abnormalities but also about ulnohumeral joint instability. In pitching arms of professional baseball players, the mean thickness of the anterior band of the UCL is greater, hypoechoic foci and calcifications are more common, and the ulnohumeral joint widens to a greater degree with valgus stress. This baseline information may be useful for evaluating acute UCL injuries or acute exacerbations of chronic injuries. Future studies must evaluate the relative effectiveness of US and MR arthrography.


   FOOTNOTES
 
Abbreviation: UCL = ulnar collateral ligament

Author contributions: Guarantor of integrity of entire study, L.N.N.; study concepts and design, all authors; literature research, L.N.N.; clinical studies, L.N.N., J.M.M., M.I.H., M.G.C.; experimental studies, L.N.N., J.M.M., M.G.C.; data acquisition, L.N.N., P.L.O., J.M.M.; data analysis/interpretation, all authors; statistical analysis, L.N.N.; manuscript preparation, definition of intellectual content, editing, revision/review, and final version approval, all authors.


   REFERENCES
TOP
 ABSTRACT
 INTRODUCTION
 MATERIALS AND METHODS
RESULTS
 DISCUSSION
 REFERENCES
 

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