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Editorials |
1 From the Depts of Radiology (M.C.F.) and Pathology (E.S.C.) and Thyroid Unit, Div of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Hypertension, Dept of Medicine (P.R.L.), Brigham and Women's Hosp, Harvard Medical School, 75 Francis St, Boston, MA 02115; Depts of Radiology (J.W.C., C.C.R.) and Pathology (J.R.G.) and Division of Endocrinology (I.D.H.), Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minn; Dept of Surgery, Univ of California at San Francisco (O.H.C.); Dept of Radiology (B.G.C., J.E.L.) and Div of Endocrinology, Diabetes and Metabolism (S.J.M.), Hosp of the Univ of Pennsylvania, Pa; Dept of Radiology, Rhode Island Hosp, Brown Univ Medical School, Providence (J.J.C.); Depts of Surgery (D.B.E.) and Endocrine Neoplasia and Hormonal Disorders (S.I.S.), Univ of Texas M.D. Anderson Cancer Ctr, Houston; Dept of Radiology, Duke Univ Medical School, Durham, NC (B.S.H.); Dept of Radiology, Thomas Jefferson Univ, Philadelphia, Pa (C.M.I.); Dept of Radiology, Stanford Univ, Palo Alto, Calif (R.B.J.); Mallinckrodt Inst of Radiology, Washington Univ School of Medicine, St Louis, Mo (W.D.M.); and Dept of Radiology, Univ of Alabama, Birmingham (F.N.T.). Received Feb 8, 2005; revision requested Mar 29; revision received Apr 26; accepted May 11. Address correspondence to M.C.F. (e-mail: mfrates{at}partners.org).
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ABSTRACT |
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© RSNA, 2005
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INTRODUCTION |
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TOPABSTRACTINTRODUCTIONMETHODS AND CONFERENCE...BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF...CONSENSUS DISCUSSION AND...References |
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Several US characteristics have been studied as potential predictors of thyroid malignancy (1–6). Although there are certain trends in the US distinction of benign and malignant thyroid nodules, there is also overlap in their appearances. Because of the inconsistent predictive value of US features, most agree that FNA and cytopathologic evaluation of a thyroid nodule are usually required before a patient undergoes surgical resection for a possible thyroid malignancy. The widespread use of FNA and cytopathologic analysis has improved the detection of thyroid cancer and has led to a decreased frequency of thyroid surgery and increased cancer rates at thyroidectomy (7–10). However, the importance of early diagnosis of thyroid cancer in patients at low risk remains uncertain because thyroid cancers are typically slow growing and are associated with low morbidity and mortality.
This consensus panel attempted to define recommendations based on nodule size and US characteristics for those thyroid nodules that should undergo US-guided FNA and for those nodules that need not undergo FNA. In this statement, we not only present the recommendations of the consensus panel along with background information and explanations but also suggest topics for future research.
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BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY OF THE LITERATURE |
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The overall incidence of cancer in patients with thyroid nodules selected for FNA is approximately 9.2%–13.0%, no matter how many nodules are present at US (3,25,27,28). This recent finding, based on the evaluation of large groups of patients undergoing thyroid US and US-guided FNA, contradicts the commonly held belief that the presence of multiple nodules decreases the likelihood of thyroid cancer (29). In patients with multiple nodules, the cancer rate per nodule decreases, but the decrease is approximately proportional to the number of nodules so that the overall rate of cancer per patient, 10%–13%, is the same as that in patients with a solitary nodule (27,28). While the thyroid cancers found in patients with multiple nodules are often in the dominant or largest nodule, in approximately one-third of cases the cancer is in a nondominant nodule. Thus, FNA interrogation only of the dominant nodule will result in detection only of approximately two-thirds of thyroid cancers in these patients (27).
Many patients present for US for evaluation of a suspected thyroid nodule found incidentally with other imaging tests, such as carotid US or cervical magnetic resonance imaging. In many such cases, the nodules are not palpable. Several investigators (2,3,14,28) have demonstrated that the incidence of thyroid cancer in incidentally identified or nonpalpable thyroid nodules is the same as that in patients with palpable nodules.
Compared with the very high prevalence of nodular thyroid disease, thyroid cancer is not common. On the basis of American Cancer Society estimates, in 2005 25 690 new cases of thyroid cancer will be diagnosed, and 1460 patients will die of thyroid malignancy in the United States (30).
The majority (75%–80%) of new cases of thyroid cancer diagnosed in the United States in 2005 will be papillary thyroid cancer. Other histologic types of thyroid cancer include follicular (10%–20%), medullary (3%–5%), and anaplastic (1%–2%) cancers (30,31). The morbidity and mortality rates of thyroid cancer are low compared with the rates for many other cancers, but both increase with advancing age of the patient and stage of the disease (32). The most common follicular cell–derived cancer is papillary thyroid carcinoma, and it is generally accepted that the 30-year survival rate for this malignancy is approximately 95% (33). Most patients with papillary cancer (80%–85%) are considered to be low risk, with 99% survival at 20 years after surgery (34). Adjuvant radioiodine treatment after complete tumor removal at thyroidectomy improves disease-free survival in high-risk patients, with no clear survival benefit in low-risk patients (32,35,36). Suppression of thyroid-stimulating hormone with exogenous thyroid hormone is a routine postoperative practice that may further improve both overall and disease-free survival in patients with papillary or follicular cancer (37,38).
US Features of Thyroid Cancer
A thyroid nodule is a discrete lesion within the thyroid gland that is sonographically distinguishable from the adjacent parenchyma (Fig 1 ). For each thyroid nodule, gray-scale and color Doppler US are used to evaluate the US features, which include size, echogenicity (hypoechoic or hyperechoic), and composition (cystic, solid, or mixed), as well as presence or absence of coarse or fine calcifications, a halo, irregular margins, and internal blood flow.
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Color Doppler US has also been evaluated as a diagnostic tool for predicting thyroid cancer, with the hypothesis that flow that is predominantly at the periphery of a nodule is suggestive of a benign nodule, while flow predominantly in the central portion of the nodule is suggestive of malignancy. The results of these studies are mixed, with some reporting that Doppler US is helpful (3,12,42,43) and others reporting that Doppler US did not improve diagnostic accuracy (13,41,44,45). In one study (6) in particular, central flow was seen in a higher percentage of malignant nodules than benign nodules (42% vs 14%). However, like other US features, color Doppler US cannot be used to diagnose or exclude malignancy with a high degree of confidence; rather, the color Doppler US finding of predominantly internal or central blood flow appears to increase the chance that a nodule is malignant.
Cytopathologic Evaluation
FNA with cytologic evaluation has become the accepted method for screening a thyroid nodule for cancer, and, in the hands of an experienced cytologist, FNA has a high accuracy rate (7). Cytologic specimens are typically classified as negative (or benign), suspicious for cancer or follicular neoplasm, positive (or diagnostic for cancer), or nondiagnostic. In general, the false-positive rate for aspirates classified as positive for cancer is less than 1%. Of the aspirates read as suspicious for cancer, 30%–65% will prove to be cancer at surgery (7). Samples that are not suspicious or diagnostic for malignancy and that contain a smaller number of cells than required for diagnosis of a benign nodule must be considered nondiagnostic. Even in centers with substantial experience, the nondiagnostic rate may be as high as 15%–20% (46). The rate of cancer in surgically resected nodules with nondiagnostic FNA results is 5%–9% (47–49).
FNA is safe, accurate, and inexpensive. Complications of the procedure, such as hematoma or pain, are rare and usually minor. The use of US guidance ensures that the sample is obtained from the nodule in question and permits direction of the needle into the solid portions of partially cystic nodules, which will improve the diagnostic yield (10,17,50).
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CONSENSUS DISCUSSION AND STATEMENT |
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The goal in evaluating a thyroid nodule is to determine whether it is benign or malignant so that patients with thyroid cancer can receive a diagnosis and undergo treatment at an earlier stage to reduce possible morbidity and mortality due to the disease, while avoiding unnecessary tests and surgery in patients with benign nodules. The panelists aimed to develop recommendations to achieve this goal, taking into account the fact that there are insufficient data to answer a number of related questions: Does diagnosis of microcarcinomas (<1.0 cm) or even of cancers smaller than 2.0 cm improve life expectancy in view of the fact that thyroid cancer tends to grow slowly and most of these patients have an excellent prognosis? Do the benefits of removing papillary thyroid cancers smaller than 1 cm outweigh the risks of more patients undergoing thyroid surgical procedures? If recommendations lead to an increased number of FNAs of thyroid nodules and subsequent thyroid surgery, what are the cost-benefit consequences, and how (if at all) should cost considerations be taken into account? The panelists considered these issues as they created the consensus statement.
For the purposes of these recommendations, a thyroid nodule is defined as any discrete lesion that is sonographically distinguishable from the adjacent thyroid parenchyma. These recommendations apply to nodules 1.0 cm in size or larger because of the uncertainty as to whether or not diagnosis of smaller cancers improves life expectancy, as well as concern that inclusion of smaller nodules would lead to an excessive number of biopsies. The size criteria for nodule selection were chosen on the basis of the risk of cancer associated with the US features. For nodules with US features associated with a higher risk of cancer, the size cutoff is smaller than that for nodules with features associated with benign cytologic findings. In particular, the presence of features most suggestive of malignancy (eg, microcalcifications) should prompt US-guided FNA at a smaller nodule size than for nodules without such features.
Consensus Statement
The consensus statement is summarized in Table 2.
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Part I.—The following are general recommendations for nodules 1.0 cm or greater in largest diameter:
Solitary nodule.—Strongly consider FNA for (a) a nodule 1.0 cm or more in largest diameter if microcalcifications are present and (b) a nodule 1.5 cm or more in largest diameter if any of the following apply: (i) nodule is solid or almost entirely solid, or (ii) there are coarse calcifications within the nodule.
Consider FNA for (a) a nodule 2.0 cm or more in largest diameter if any of the following apply: (i) the nodule is mixed solid and cystic, or (ii) the nodule is almost entirely cystic with a solid mural component; or (b) the nodule has shown substantial growth since prior US examination.
FNA is likely unnecessary if the nodule is almost entirely cystic, in the absence of the above-listed features.
Multiple nodules.—Consider FNA of one or more nodules, with selection prioritized on the basis of the previously stated criteria in the order listed above. FNA is likely unnecessary in diffusely enlarged glands with multiple nodules of similar US appearance without intervening normal parenchyma.
Note that these recommendations are not absolute or inflexible. In certain circumstances, the physician's clinical judgment may lead him or her to determine that FNA need not be performed for nodules that meet the recommendations above. In others, FNA may be appropriate for nodules that do not meet the criteria listed above.
Part II.—The recommendation for nondiagnostic aspirates from initial FNA is as follows: Consider a second FNA of nodules meeting criteria for FNA of solitary nodules, as outlined above.
Part III.—The presence of abnormal lymph nodes overrides the US features criteria and should prompt biopsy of the lymph node and/or (if necessary) of an ipsilateral thyroid nodule.
Explanations
Measurements.—Nodules should be measured with the calipers placed outside of any visible halo. The maximum diameter should be used when considering whether or not US-guided FNA should be performed.
Calcification.—The presence of any calcification within the nodule raises the likelihood of malignancy. In particular, microcalcifications in a predominantly solid nodule (Fig 2a) are associated with an approximately threefold increase in cancer risk and coarse calcifications are associated with a twofold increase, as compared with predominantly solid nodules without calcifications (5). Microcalcifications likely represent multiple calcified psammoma bodies, which are typical of papillary thyroid cancer (51). Care must be taken to differentiate these fine punctate calcifications, which are individually too small to induce posterior acoustic shadowing, from echogenic foci with posterior comet-tail artifacts, which are commonly seen in benign cystic or partially cystic nodules (40) (Fig 2b). In the absence of comet-tail artifacts, tiny echogenicities must be assumed to be calcifications when considering the risk of cancer. There are insufficient data to know whether intense rim calcification, as opposed to calcifications within the nodule, is associated with malignancy.
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Color Doppler US.—When color Doppler US is included in the evaluation of a thyroid nodule, available research indicates that marked internal flow suggests an increased likelihood of malignancy, as compared with the absence of marked internal flow. Marked internal flow is defined as more flow in the nodule than in the surrounding thyroid gland and more flow in the central part of the nodule than at the periphery (Fig 3). Appropriate Doppler US technique is imperative for accurate assessment of nodule vascularity, with color Doppler gain settings maximized for slow flow. Color Doppler US is also useful for evaluating mixed cystic and solid nodules and predominantly cystic nodules with a focal area that appears solid. This will help differentiate solid tissue, which will have blood flow, from an avascular blood clot or debris (Fig 4). When US-guided FNA is performed on such nodules, the needle should be directed toward the regions with visible flow, to increase the likelihood of a diagnostic aspirate. While occasionally useful in selecting nodules for US-guided FNA, color Doppler US should not be considered a requirement for the selection of nodules for sampling.
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Multiple nodules.—In many patients, more than one nodule is identified or the gland appears diffusely enlarged with multiple nodules of similar US appearance without intervening normal parenchyma. The panel agreed that FNA is likely not necessary in the latter setting. In patients with multiple discrete nodules, the panel had two opinions regarding selection of nodules for FNA. The majority opinion was that the selection should be based primarily on US characteristics other than nodule size (5). Thus, a solid nodule with microcalcifications should be selected for FNA before a larger mixed cystic and solid nodule without calcifications. The minority opinion was that the largest nodule should undergo US-guided FNA, and the selection of other nodules for US-guided FNA should be based on US characteristics.
Abnormal cervical lymph nodes (excluding submandibular nodes).—The presence of abnormal cervical lymph nodes overrides the recommendations in parts I and II of the statement and should prompt biopsy of the abnormal lymph nodes and/or an ipsilateral thyroid nodule of any size. On occasion, a patient has an abnormal lymph node representing metastatic thyroid cancer and a sonographically normal gland, because the primary tumor is not visible at US. US diagnosis of an abnormal lymph node depends on size, shape, vascularity, and internal architecture (53,54). The US features associated with the highest risk of cancer include heterogeneous echotexture, calcifications, and cystic areas within the lymph node (Fig 5). A rounded lymph node or one causing a mass effect is also at elevated risk of being malignant. In general, size is a less reliable criterion for malignancy in a lymph node than are shape and architecture, although the chance of malignancy increases as the size of the lymph node increases. Thus, lymph nodes should be considered suspicious if they measure more than 7 mm in the short axis (54).
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1. How should substantial growth be defined? In particular, if a nodule has a prior FNA diagnosis of being benign, how much growth over what period of time should prompt consideration for repeat US-guided FNA? What measurements or calculations should be used to monitor growth: maximum diameter, average diameter, or volume?
2. In a patient with multiple nodules, which and how many nodules should undergo US-guided FNA? Strategies for follow-up in patients with multiple nodules should be devised.
3. Are there other US characteristics of a nodule that might be used to prove a nodule is benign, thus precluding FNA in some other patients besides those with almost entirely cystic nodules? Are there combinations of US characteristics that might be used to help direct management?
4. What is the cost-effectiveness of various approaches to the diagnosis of solitary and multiple nodules?
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FOOTNOTES |
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Abbreviations: FNA = fine-needle aspiration
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